Copyright © 2005 by Joseph A. Adler
NOT FOR DISTRIBUTION

PART ONE [Go to Part Two]

Most of the books he wrote have been scattered and lost, except for this one, originally called I-t'ung (Penetrating the I). Together with the "Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Polarity" it was given to the Ch'eng brothers and then handed down to posterity. In regard to his theory, [these texts] really complement each other. Generally speaking, they extend from the differentiation and integration of the one principle (li), the two modes of psycho-physical substance (ch'i), and the Five Phases (wu-hsing), thereby determining the subtle and manifest [aspects] of the substance of the Way. They pronounce upon the choices involved in ethical behavior, literary expression, and material profit in order to reinvigorate the low level of common scholarship. His discussions of the methods by which to enter into virtue and the tools by which to manage the world are both cogent and terse; they are not empty words. His broad principles and general applications are unmatched by any scholars since the Ch'in and Han [dynasties, 221 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.]; likewise the thoroughness of his reasoning and the profundity of his ideas are beyond what recent scholars have been able to glimpse.

Therefore, when the Cheng brothers died, his successors were few. Those who knew him considered his ideas lofty and distant. In my early years, I was fortunate to receive his bequeathed writings. Yet when I submitted to reading them, at first I did not understand at all what he was saying. Worse yet, I could not even punctuate them. In my thirties I had the opportunity to go study with Master Yen-p'ing [Li T'ung, 1093-1163], and then I began to learn about ten to twenty percent of [Chou's] theory. In recent years, after delving into it for a long time, I have gotten it, if only roughly. Although I do not presume to understand the broad principles and general applications, still within the text there are actual means by which to see the surpassing thoroughness of his reasoning and the surpassing profundity of his ideas, which will not delude us.

Although good and evil are [equal and] opposite [in Hu's theory], they must be differentiated as servant and master. Although the Order of Heaven and human desire are different branches (p'ai), it is necessary to see them as legitimate (tsung) and illegitimate.⁽³¹⁾ [However, as in Chou's theory,] the movement from authentic activity to goodness is like a tree [growing] from root to trunk and from trunk to branch. The continuity from top to bottom is the manifestation of the moral mind/heart (tao-hsin), or the outflowing of the Order of Heaven, which is the fundamental master of this mind/heart and the legitimate descent-line (cheng-tsung) of authenticity. If it flowers off to the side like a parasitic growth, then although it may still be authentic activity, it is the manifestation of the human mind/heart (jen-hsin) and the outflowing of selfish desire, which is considered evil. It rejects what the mind/heart originally possesses in favor of a temporary lodger. It rejects the legitimate origin of authenticity in favor of the illegitimate. If you differentiate them late, then your selection will not be pure. Then the guest might take advantage of the host, and the illegitimate son might usurp the [legitimate] descent-line.

Students should be able to examine what accords with and what opposes [the Order of Heaven] between [the moments of] incipient subtlety and germinal activity. What comes out straight [i.e. as true, direct expression of authenticity and human nature] is the Order of Heaven; what comes out deviant is human desire. What comes out straight is good; what comes out deviant is evil. What comes out straight is one's original possession; what comes out deviant is not one's true offspring. What comes out straight is rooted [in one's nature]; what comes out deviant lacks a source. What comes out straight is compliant; what comes out deviant is contrary; What comes out straight is correct; what comes out deviant is perverse.

We should positively guide what comes out straight, and extinguish what comes out deviant. When this effort is perfected, then the expression of our mind/heart will spontaneously come out on course, and will ensure our possession of Heaven's decree. In this way we can see that before the unexpressed [phase of mind/heart] there is goodness but no evil. As Master Ch'eng [Hao] said, "It is not the case that within human nature there originally are these two things [good and evil] in mutual opposition at birth."⁽³²⁾ He also said, "Generally speaking, in every case of good and evil, first there is good and then there is evil." I suppose this expresses it.

If we considered good and evil to be mutually opposed things, one vying with the other [as in the diagram of Hu's idea], then this would be the Order of Heaven and human desires appearing together from the same source (t'ung-ch'u i-yüan). The prior, unexpressed [phase of mind/heart] would already contain these two strands (tuan), and "What Heaven endows is called human nature" [Chung-yung 1] would refer to something very dirty and impure. This is Mr. Hu's idea of "same substance, different function."

The Master replied: This explanation has got it.

...

[11] [a-c] Jen-chieh asked about Chi-t'ung's theory that in the section, "In being authentic there is no acting; in incipience there is good and evil; among the virtues, loving is called humanity...," Master Chou did not maintain consistency [see above]. Since he says "In being authentic there is no acting," then how can he follow that with the words "good and evil"? [Chu Hsi] said: How do you see that? Jen-chieh said: Since in being authentic there is no acting, I suspect that there is never any evil. How can the incipiencies of the learner's mind/heart be without evil? Reply: When it is not yet stimulated, the fivefold nature is completely contained [in the mind/heart]. How can there be anything but good? When it responds to events, then there is a point where attention fails, and this is evil. The Sages and Worthies of antiquity trembled with fear lest before their lives were over their correctness would become like this. Yen Tzu was like this; he was never unaware of what was not good in him.

[12] Some take good and evil as the distinction between male and female. Others take it to concern yin and yang. In general, when discussing two mutually opposed things, there is nothing that is not the Order of yin and yang. In terms of the distinction of yin and yang, we may speak of good and evil, and we may speak of male and female. It depends on how one is using it. Therefore good and evil can refer to yin and yang and can also refer to male and female.

[13] [c] [Concerning the passage:] "Of the virtues, loving is called humanity ... preserving is called honesty." The virtues are what human beings obtain in their minds/hearts. Loving (ai), being right (i), being Ordered (li), being penetrating (t'ung), and preserving (shou) are the functions of virtue. Humanity, appropriateness, propriety, wisdom and honesty are the substances of virtue. Being Ordered means having pattern (yu t'iao-li). Being penetrating means comprehending (t'ung-ta). Preserving means certain (ch'ueh-shih). These three sentences refer to to the human body. Being authentic is the nature. Incipience is the feelings. The virtues refer to the combination of the nature and the feelings.

...

[15] [d] Question about [Chu's comment] "'The "nature" is what is obtained alone from Heaven" [see above]. How can you say "obtained alone" (tu-te)?⁽³³⁾ Reply: This says that the Sage completely embodies the clearest (ch'i), with no deficiency. This is what the Sage alone obtains. This is as opposed to the discussion of the word "recovers" [see above]. One who "recovers" has already lost it and returns to the beginning. This is not the same as the Sage's obtaining it alone. The word "at ease" (an) is opposed to the word "holds onto." To hold onto is to grasp; ease is spontaneous. In general Master Chou's words are extremely well-suited for designating what is important and unimportant.

Yin asked: Was Master Chou's learning obtained by himself in his heart/mind? Or was there something transmitted [from a teacher]? Reply: There must have been something transmitted. He was Lu Shen's son-in-law. Wen-kung's [Ssu-ma Kuang's] "Record of the Sou River" contains Lu Shen's affairs. He was a sincere and generous man.⁽³⁴⁾

[16] [d-f] "One whose subtle signs of expression are imperceptible, and whose fullness is inexhaustible, is called Spiritual." This says that his expression is subtle, mysterious, and imperceptible. His capacity is full to the brim and inexhaustible. The words "expression" and "fulness" refer to what can be seen by others. For example, "one who is by nature like this, at ease like this," and "one who recovers it and holds onto it" -- there are such people. And "one whose subtle signs of expression are imperceptible, and whose fullness is inexhaustible" -- even this is reasonable. The "spiritual" is simply the doings of the Sage. It is not that there is a spirit apart from the Sage, occupying another space.

...

[18] [f] Question: The T'ung-shu mentions "spiritual" five times.⁽³⁵⁾ Are the meanings the same? Reply: They must accord with what you see there. Question: Does "spiritual" simply refer to the mysterious? Reply: Yes. There is also [the line in section 4] "That which is "penetrating when stimulated" is spiritual." Heng-ch'ü [Chang Tsai] explained the spiritual in another way, referring to that which is in two places [at once] and therefore cannot be fathomed, indicating [the processes of] creative transformation. He said, "Suddenly here, suddenly there: it is spiritual." Question: How do you speak of it within human beings? Reply: Consciousness (chih-chüeh) is certainly spiritual. If you cut your hand then your hand perceives pain. If you cut your foot then your foot perceives pain. This is certainly spiritual. Spirit responds, and is therefore mysterious.

[19] [a-c] The T'ung-shu's statement, "In being authentic there is no [intentional] acting" is the Supreme Polarity; "In incipience there is good and evil" is yin and yang; "the virtues called humanity, appropriateness, propriety, wisdom, and honesty" are the Five Phases. They are all discussed in the Diagram [of the Supreme Polarity]. As for the rest, such as "open-minded when still and direct when active" (ch.20), "propriety before music" (ch.13), "placid and harmonious" (ch.17), "determined and precise," they are all the Diagram's concept of the stillness and activity of yin and yang.⁽³⁶⁾

4. SAGEHOOD 聖

[Chang's note:] This section discusses the mysterious functioning of authenticity, spirituality, and incipience. Only the sage, who is of this nature and equanimity, is able [to be like this].

[a] That which is "completely silent and inactive"⁽³⁷⁾ is authenticity. That which "penetrates when stimulated"⁽³⁸⁾ is spirit (shen). That which is active but not yet formed, between existing and not existing, is incipient (chi).

That which is originally so and yet unmanifest is the substance of the actualized Order. That which is aptly responsive yet unfathomable is the functioning of the actualized Order. Between activity and stillness, substance and function, suddenly in the space of an instant there is the beginning of the appearance of the actualized Order, and the auspicious and inauspicious omens of the multitudinous phenomena.

[b] Authenticity is essential [ching, i.e. pure], and therefore clear. Spirit is responsive, and therefore mysterious. Incipience is subtle, and therefore obscure.

To be clear and bright in body, with a will like that of a spirit, is to be "essential" and "clear." "To hurry without haste, to arrive without going"⁽³⁹⁾ is to be "responsive" and "mysterious." Although the Order has already sprouted, events are not yet apparent; they are "subtle" and "obscure."

[c] One who is authentic, spiritual, and incipient is called a Sage.

If one is "by nature like this, at ease like this," [chapter 3 above] then one is essential and clear, responsive and mysterious, and has the means to see into the obscure and subtle.

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] [a] "To be "completely silent and inactive" is to be authentic." Also, "Great indeed is the originating power of Ch'ien! The myriad things rely on it for their beginning. It is the source of being authentic" [chapter 1 above]. One must understand that before this great originating power of Ch'ien, which the myriad things rely on for their beginning, it is all the more "completely silent and inactive."

[2] "Incipient good and evil" [chapter 3 above] refers to the masses of people. "Active but not yet formed, between existing and not existing" refers to the Sage's tiniest active expression. This Order is wholly evident. "That which is "completely silent and inactive" is authentic." Up to where it is subtly active is incipience. Incipience lies between authenticity and spirit.

[3] Lin asked: For entering into virtue there is nothing like using incipience. Is this the most essential? Reply: Yes. Question about the T'ung-shu's discussion of incipience: How is it between activity and stillness, substance and function? Reply: It is like when something is there and yet not there. [One can] see it in people.

[4] Although incipience is already stimulated, it is at the point when stimulation has just occurred. When penetration (t'ung) is extended to the end, all is penetrated [comprehended, or ordered?]. If this is extended to the maximum it comes to harmonizing the myriad states. When the common people are in accord through changing times, this is also penetration.

[5] [Question:] The T'ung-shu frequently discusses incipience. But this idea is not contained in the Diagram of the Supreme Polarity. Reply: [The "Explanation" says,] "The Five Phases are stimulated to activity." [Incipience] is when they are active but not yet differentiated [into good and evil]....

[6] [b] Question about "Authenticity is essential, and therefore clear." The Master has explained it as "clear and bright in body, with a will like that of a spirit." But is this [what Chung-yung 21 means by] "When one is clear then one will be authentic"? Reply: Certainly we can see that [my] text here is rough. [But] Master Chou's use of the word "essence" is the best. "Authenticity is essential" means it has nothing else mixed with it. For example, a lump of silver containing absolutely no copper or lead is thoroughly good silver. Therefore here I used "clear and bright" to explain it. "A will like that of a spirit" is precisely the Way of perfect authenticity, the idea that one can have foreknowledge (ch'ien-chih).⁽⁴⁰⁾ ...

[7] [c] An-ch'ing asked about "One who is authentic, spiritual, and incipient." How should students follow this? Reply: Follow it by exerting effort (kung-fu).⁽⁴¹⁾ Authenticity is where the ruler resides. Where it emerges in functioning is spirit. Incipience is where one chooses.⁽⁴²⁾ But the critical point is incipience.

5. CAUTIOUS ACTIVITY 慎動

[Chang's note:] This section says that when activity achieves its correctness, then functioning will achieve its harmony. If it does not achieve this harmony, then one is abused and injured. This is what is valuable about examining incipiencies.

[a] To be active and yet correct is called the Way.

The means by which activity becomes correct is by according with the multitudinous Way that everything follows.

[b] To be functioning and yet harmonious is called virtue.

The means by which functioning becomes harmonious is by achieving the Way in one's body, without depending on anything external.

[c] To rebel against humanity, to rebel against appropriateness, to rebel against propriety, to rebel against wisdom, and to rebel against honesty is to be completely depraved.

What is called the Way is nothing but the Five Constants. If not for these, then one's activity will be depraved.

[d] To be depraved in one's activity is abuse. To do so to an extreme is injury.

Without achieving the Way, one's functioning is not harmonious.

[e] Therefore the superior person is cautious in activity.

Activity must be correct; then harmony will be found therein.

From the Collected Conversations:

...

6. THE WAY 聖

[Chang's note:] This section says that the Way lies in equilibrium and correctness. When one can preserve it, practice it, and enlarge it, then the Way is completed and virtue is provided for.

[a] The Way of the Sages is nothing more than humanity, appropriateness, equilibrium, and correctness.

'Equilibrium' is the same as propriety. "Correctness" is the same as wisdom. The Diagram explains this fully.⁽⁴³⁾

[b] Preserve it and it will be ennobling.

How can anything be valued as much as the virtue of Heaven in oneself?

[c] Practice it and it will be beneficial.

How can according with the Order lead to anything but benefit?

[d] Enlarge it and it will match heaven-and-earth.

To fully develop and establish one's fundamental nature is nothing less than the complete substance [of heaven-and-earth].

[e] How can it not be easy and simple? How can it be difficult to know?

The substance of the Way is one's fundamental nature; therefore it is easy [to follow]. It is that which human beings certainly possess; therefore it is easy to know.

[f] By not preserving it, not practicing it, and not enlarging it.

Students who do this will, alas, miss their incipient (clues).

7. THE TEACHER 師

[Chang's note:] This section says that if one's physical constitution contains any imbalance, then one will miss the mark; thus the value of instruction in cultivating the Way.

[a] Someone asked: "Who makes all under Heaven good?" Reply: "The teacher." "What do you mean?" "[He is one whose] nature is simply in equilibrium between firm and yielding good and evil."

The so-called "nature" here refers to the physical endowment.⁽⁴⁴⁾

[b] "I do not understand." Reply: "Firmness is good when it is appropriate, direct, decided, dignified, capable and certain. It is evil when it is violent, narrow, and limited. Yielding is good when it is compassionate, docile, and mild. It is evil when it is weak, indecisive, and treacherous."

Firmness and yielding are just the major differentiation of yin and yang; within each of them is the further yin-yang differentiation into good and evil. Evil is just being wrong or incorrect, yet goodness too may not necessarily hit the mark in all cases.

[c] Only equilibrium is harmonious and "moderately regulated."⁽⁴⁵⁾ This is "the all-encompassing Way of the world."⁽⁴⁶⁾ It is the activity of the Sage.

This refers to the correct way to achieve [fulfillment of] one's nature. However, where [Chou] takes harmony to be the equilibrium, he is not in accord with the Chung-yung. What he refers to here is already-expressed (i-fa) [activity] that neither goes too far nor not far enough. It is like what the Shu[-ching] calls "holding fast to the Mean."⁽⁴⁷⁾

[d] Therefore the Sage establishes education, to enable common people to change their evil [tendencies], and on their own to reach equilibrium and stay there.

When one's evil [tendencies] are changed, then firmness and yielding are both good: one has the virtues of dignity and resoluteness, compassion and compliance, and lacks the afflictions of limitation and weakness. Reaching the Mean, one is sometimes dignified and resolute, sometimes compassionate and compliant, but always moderately regulated and lacking the imbalance of going too far or not far enough.

[e] Therefore those who first become aware awaken those who become aware later, the unenlightened seek from the enlightened, and the Way of instruction is established.

Instruction is simply the means by which to work on people's evil [tendencies] and correct people's unequilibrium.

[f] With the Way of instruction established, then good people will proliferate. When good people proliferate, then the Court will be correct and all under Heaven will be well-governed.

This is how to make all under Heaven good.

What this chapter refers to as firmness and yielding is the same as the Two Modes in the I.⁽⁴⁸⁾ Adding "good" and "evil" to each is the same as the Four Images in the I.⁽⁴⁹⁾ The I goes on to add another level to make the Eight Trigrams, while this text and the Diagram stop at the Four Images. They can be considered water, fire, metal, and wood, and their point of equilibrium can be considered earth. The substance of the Way, then, is singular, while the details and outlines that people perceive are not the same. It is only in their fundamental substance that they do not differ, and so they proceed together and do not conflict.

From the Classified Conversations:

...

8. GOOD FORTUNE 幸

[Chang's note:] This section discusses the frequent shortcomings in the behavior of most people. If they value having a mind that understands shame, then they can be taught.

[a] In human life, it is unfortunate not to hear about one's errors. To lack shame is a great misfortune.

If one does not hear about one's errors, a person is uninformed.

[b] Only with a sense of shame can one be taught. If one hears about one's errors, then one can become a Worthy.

If one has shame, then one is able to put forth effort and receive instruction. If one hears about one's errors, then one can understand what to change to become Worthy. But if one cannot be instructed, then, although one hears about one's errors one will not necessarily be able to change. From this we see that the misfortune of lacking shame is even greater.

From the Classified Conversations:

[a-b] "In human life, it is unfortunate not to hear about one's errors. To lack shame is a great misfortune." These two sentences are a single matter. Understanding shame arises from within one's heart/mind; hearing about one's errors comes from others. One must understand shame in order to reform one's errors. Therefore shame is important.

9. THINKING 思

[Chang's note:] This section discusses those who are not yet able to be like the Sage, who is authentic without thinking.

[a] The Hung-fan says: "[The virtue of ] thinking (ssu) is called perspicacity (jui).... Perspicacity makes one a Sage."⁽⁵⁰⁾ To be without thinking is the foundation. When thinking is penetrating, this is its function. When there is incipient activity on the one hand, and authentic activity on the other, with no thinking and yet penetrating everything,⁽⁵¹⁾ one is a Sage.

Perspicacity is penetration. To be without thinking is to be authentic. When thinking is penetrating, it is spiritual. This is what is meant by "One who is authentic, spiritual, and incipient is called a Sage."

[b] If one does not think, then one cannot penetrate subtleties. If one is not perspicacious, then one cannot penetrate everything. Thus, [the ability] to penetrate everything arises from penetrating subtleties, and [the ability] to penetrate subtleties arises from thinking.

[The ability] to penetrate subtleties is perspicacity. [The ability] to penetrate everything is sageliness.

[c] Therefore thinking is the foundation of the Sage's achievement and the opportunity for good fortune or misfortune.

The ultimate (perfection) of thinking can make one a Sage, who penetrates everything. It can also enable one to perceive incipience and penetrate subtlety, and to avoid misfortune and calamity.

[d] The I says, "The superior person perceives incipience and acts, without waiting all day."⁽⁵²⁾

This is perspicacity.

[e] It also says, "Knowing incipience is his spirituality."⁽⁵³⁾

This is the Sage.

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] [a] Question on "To be without thinking is the foundation. When thinking is penetrating, this is its function. [...] With no thinking and yet penetrating everything, one is a Sage." I do not understand whether the Sage does think or does not think. Reply: "With no thinking and yet penetrating everything" [characterizes] the Sage. When it is necessary to think and then everything is penetrated, this is perspicacity. Shih-chü said: The Sage's "silent inactivity" is without thinking. Only with stimulation is there penetration, in a particular response to it. Reply: The Sage is not a dolt who only acts after being stirred by others, like Chuang Tzu's "move when pushed, stop when pulled." It is just that once he thinks, then he penetrates. He does not wait for the death of a parent...

[2] [a] Incipience is the hint of an event. When there is a hint, then one asks where it leads to. This method makes use of thinking.

[3] Referring to the T'ung-shu's terms "penetrating subtlety" and "penetrating everything," referring to Li [?] the Master said: When King Hsüan of Ch'i spoke of loving sex, Mencius explained it thusly; when he spoke of loving wealth, he explained it thusly; when he spoke of loving courage, he explained it thusly.⁽⁵⁴⁾ In all [three] cases there was an Order of the Way [or moral pattern] that explained [i.e. connected] the future and the past. This is the moral pattern of exhausting the mind/heart. At that time it was not understood. Now, we know it is the moral pattern of "penetrating everything."⁽⁵⁵⁾

10. DETERMINATION TO LEARN 志學

[Chang's note:] This section says that for learning one must establish the will/determination. When one's determination is great, then all things can be penetrated.

[a] The Sage emulates Heaven. The Worthy emulates the Sage. The literatus emulates the Worthy.

"Emulates" means to hope for. (The character was originally written [differently].)

[b] I-yin and Yen Yüan were great Worthies. I-yin was ashamed that his prince was not Yao or Shun. If one person did not attain his rightful place, it was like being whipped in the marketplace. Yen Yüan "did not transfer his anger and did not repeat an error,"⁽⁵⁶⁾ and "for three months did nothing contrary to humanity."⁽⁵⁷⁾

For this discussion, see the Shu and the Lun-yü, which contain the affairs of both Worthies.⁽⁵⁸⁾

[c] Be determined to have I-yin's determination. Learn what Yen Yüan learned.

This refers to the literatus emulating the worthy.

[d] If you exceed this you will be a Sage. If you reach it you will be a Worthy. Even if you do not reach it you will not miss out on an honorable reputation.

The three go as far as they can according to the shallowness or depth of the effort they apply. One will not miss out on an honorable reputation because one possesses the actuality of being good.

Mr. Hu [Hung] says, "Master Chou was concerned that people have a deliberate plan, a healthy body and prosperous family, and ...

Thus he says: Determine to have I-yin's determination. He was concerned that people learn widely, work at writing, respect wisdom and ability, and pattern their behavior after silence and vacancy. Thus he says: Learn what Yen Tzu learned. People who are able to be this determined and this learned will understand the extreme greatness contained in this book, and their application of it will be limitless.

From the Classified Conversations:

...

11. COMPLIANCE AND TRANSFORMATION 順化

[Chang's note:] This section discusses Heaven's generation and fulfillment of the myriad things through yin and yang. The Sage, who educates and corrects the myriad people through humanity and appropriateness, is one with Heaven.

[a] Heaven generates the myriad things through yang, and fulfills the myriad things through yin. Generating is humanity. Fulfillment is appropriateness.

Yin and yang refer to ch'i. Humanity and appropriateness refer to tao. The details are explained in the Chart.

[b] Therefore when a Sage is above [on the throne], he nourishes the myriad things with humanity and corrects the myriad people with appropriateness.

This is what is meant by determining them with humanity and appropriateness.

[c] The Way of Heaven proceeds and the myriad things comply [with it]. The virtue of the Sage cultivates [others] and the myriad people are transformed. Great compliance and great transformation leave no visible trace. Since no one understands them, they are considered spiritual.

The Way of Heaven, Earth, and the Sage are one.

[d] Therefore everything under Heaven is originally contained in every person. How can the Way be distant? How can its methods be numerous?

The basis of all under Heaven is contained in the superior person. The Way of the superior person is contained in the mind/heart. The method of the mind/heart is contained in humanity and appropriateness.

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] [a] Humanity and appropriateness are like yin and yang, which are merely the same ch'i. Yang is upright ch'i; yin is ch'i that is tending to dissipate. Humanity is appropriateness that is tending to dissipate. [???] Appropriateness is humanity that has been restored.

[2] [b] Question: Spring's planting and summer's growth are humanity. Autumn's harvest and winter's storage are appropriateness. Is this also what is meant by establishing the Way of Heaven and the Human Way? Reply: In this book this is the discussion of the two ch'i and the Five Phases.

[3] [c] ...

12. GOVERNMENT 治

[Chang's note:] This section discusses the Sage as the foundation of government, taking his pure heart/mind as essential, and employing the Worthy as urgent.

[a] Teaching by speaking directly to everyone is not sufficient even in a village of ten households. How much more difficult in an extensive Empire with millions of people! I say: Purify the mind/heart, that is all.

"Pure" means unmixed. "Mind/heart" means the the mind/heart of the people's ruler.

[b] "Purify" means to do nothing contrary to the four [virtues of] humanity, appropriateness, propriety and wisdom, whether in activity or when still, in one's speech, appearance, seeing and hearing.

Humanity, appropriateness, propriety and wisdom are virtues of the Five Phases. Activity and stillness are the functioning of yin and yang. Speech, appearance, seeing and hearing are the behaviors of the Five Phases. Of the virtues, honesty is not mentioned, and of the behaviors, thought is not mentioned. [As for the latter omission,] in desiring not to act contrary [to the four virtues] we can certainly consider thought to be the master, which must seek out the actuality [i.e. the concrete manifestations] of these four.

[c] When his mind/heart is pure, then worthy and talented men will assist him.

The ruler selects people by himself. The Way of the minister is to agree and follow.

[d] When worthy and talented men assist him, the Empire will be well-governed.

When the various worthies each take responsibility for their office, then he [the ruler] need not depend on teaching by speaking directly to everyone.

[e] Purifying the heart/mind is indeed essential. Employing worthy men is urgent.

If the heart/mind is not purified, then one will be unable to employ worthy men. If one does not employ worthy men, then one will lack the means to widely transform.

13. RITUAL AND MUSIC 禮樂

[Chang's note:] This section discusses the Way in which ritual and music are mutually necessary. It is the same as the meaning of yin and yang in the Diagram [T'ai-chi t'u].

[a] Ritual (li) is Order (li). Music is harmony.

Ritual is yin; music is yang.

[b] Yin and yang are harmonious only when Ordered. Then the ruler is [truly] ruler, the minister is minister, father is father, son is son, elder brother is elder brother, younger brother is younger brother, husband is husband, and wife is wife. The myriad things are harmonious only when each achieves its Order. Therefore ritual is first and music follows.

This defines it with the concept of emphasizing stillness in central and correct humanity and appropriateness. In Master Ch'eng's discussion of reverent composure (ching), "spontaneous, harmonious music" is also [an example of] this principle. Students who do not know how to devote themselves to making harmonious music while holding onto reverent composure will seldom progress beyond the slow.

From the Classified Conversations:

...

14. BEING DEVOTED TO ACTUALIZATION 務實

[Chang's note:] This section says that learning must be devoted to actualizing [one's moral potential]. This is what previous sections call being authentic. "Without authenticity there would be nothing;" there is nothing but hypocrisy in it.⁽⁵⁹⁾

[a] For actualization to dominate [one's work] is good. For fame to dominate is shameful. Therefore the superior person advances his virtue and cultivates his work with unceasing diligence, devoting himself to the dominance of actualization. If his virtue and affairs are not prominent, he apprehensively fears that others will know [about it]; he wants to distance himself from shame. The inferior person, on the other hand, is simply hypocritical. Therefore the superior person is always at ease, while the inferior person is always anxious.

[One whose] actualization is cultivated and has no shame resulting from the dominance of fame is therefore at ease. [One whose] fame dominates and has no goodness resulting from actualization being cultivated is therefore anxious.

15. LOVE AND REVERENCE 愛敬

[Chang's note:] This section uses good and evil as two clues to clarify the matters of self-cultivation and governing [correcting] others. This is known as reciprocity.

[a] [What if I] do not measure up to a good person?⁽⁶⁰⁾

Someone asks, "Suppose there is a good person, and I cannot measure up. Then what?"

[b] "If you do not measure up, then learn to do so."

The reply is that one must simply learn to be good.

[c] Question: "[What if] there is a bad person?"

He asks if someone is not good, then how does one handle it?

[d] "If he is not good, then inform him that he is not good. Furthermore, exhort him, saying, "Suppose you change; you will then become a superior person.""

The reply is that if there is a person who is not good, then one informs him that he is not good, and exhorts him to change. One informs him lest he not know that this behavior is not good. One exhorts him lest he not know that what is not good can be changed into goodness.

[e] "If one person is good and two are not good, then learn from the one and exhort the two."

This is also the reply. It says that if there is a mixture of good and evil people, then learn from the good and exhort the evil.

[f] "If someone says, "This person has done something that is not good, but it is not a great evil," then say, "Who makes no errors? How do we know that he cannot change? If he changes, then he can become a superior person. Not changing results in evil. Evil is what Heaven hates. How can he not fear [Heaven]? How do we know that he cannot change?"

This is also the reply. If one hears about a person who has made an error, although one cannot inform and exhort him in person, still one must reply like this, hoping he might hear about it and change himself. When one intentionally [lit. mindfully] opposes Order it is called evil. When one unintentionally neglects Order it is called an error.

[g] Therefore the superior person possesses all goodness, and there is no one who does not love and revere him.

There is no goodness he has not learned, therefore "he possesses all goodness." There is no evil he has not exhorted, therefore he does not abandon anyone to evil. Since he does not abandon anyone to evil, there is no one who does not treat him with love and reverence.

16. ACTIVITY AND STILLNESS 動靜

[Chang's note:] This section brings to light the ultimate Order of activity and stillness. Penetrating throughout the creative process of transformation, there is nothing as exhaustive as this Way.

[a] That which has no stillness in activity and no activity in stillness is a thing (wu).

Having physical form, it is limited to one aspect [i.e. to one mode or the other].

[b] That which has no activity in activity, and no stillness in stillness, is spirit (shen).

Spirit is neither separate from physical form nor limited to physical form.

[c] It is not the case that having no activity in activity and having no stillness in stillness is neither activity nor stillness.

There is stillness within activity, and activity within stillness.

[d] Things, then, are not penetrating (t'ung). Spirit renders the myriad things subtle.

The above sentence is connected with the meaning that comes out below.

[e] The yin of water is based in yang; the yang of fire is based in yin.

Water is yin, and yet it is generated from [the number] one, so it is based in yang.⁽⁶¹⁾ Fire is yang, and yet it is generated from two, so it is based in yin. The statement "spirit renders the myriad things subtle" is like this.⁽⁶²⁾

[f] The Five Phases are yin and yang. Yin and yang are the Supreme Polarity.

This is the same as the statement [in the Explanation of the Diagram]: "The Five Phases are one yin and yang; yin and yang are the one Supreme Polarity." [Here it is] discussed in reference to the substance (t'i) of the "spirit which renders the myriad things subtle."

[g] The Four Seasons revolve; the myriad things end and begin [again].

This is the same as the statement [in the Explanation of the Diagram]: "The five ch'i are harmoniously distributed, and the four seasons proceed.... The Non-Polar (wu-chi), the Two [modes], and the Five [Phases] subtly combine and congeal." [Here it is] discussed in reference to the function (yung) of the "spirit which renders the myriad things subtle."

[h] How undifferentiated! How extensive! And how endless!

Substance is fundamental and unitary; hence "undifferentiated." Function is dispersed and differentiated; hence "extensive." The succession of activity and stillness is like an endless revolution. This continuity refers to [the relationship of] substance and function. This section clarifies the ideas of the Diagram, which should be consulted.

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] [a-b] Question concerning "That which has no stillness in activity and no activity in stillness is a thing. That which has no activity in activity, and no stillness in stillness, is spirit." Does a so-called "thing" include human beings? Reply: Human beings are included. Question: Is "spirit" the creative process of transformation in Heaven-and-earth? Reply: Spirit is precisely this pattern (li). Question: Things are limited by having physical form. But since human beings have stillness in activity and activity in stillness, how can we say that they are like the myriad things? Reply: Human beings are certainly active within stillness and still within activity, yet still they are called things. In general, the term "thing" refers to formed ch'i having a fixed body. But since there is a certain flexibility within it, we must understand that implements are the Way, and the Way is implements. There is nothing separate from the Way, including things. All things have [are part of] this Order. For example, this bamboo chair is certainly an implement. As for its suitability, it itself has a certain Order within it.

[a-d] In this chapter, "That which has no stillness in activity and no activity in stillness is a thing" refers to physical implements. That which is physical cannot penetrate [other things]. Therefore, when it is active it has no stillness, and when it is still it has no activity. For example, water is only water, and fire is only fire. And so in reference to human beings, if they speak they are not silent, and if they are silent they are not speaking. Likewise in reference to things, if they fly they are not plants, and if they are plants they do not fly. "It is not the case that having no activity in activity and having no stillness in stillness is neither activity nor stillness" refers to the metaphysical Order. The Order is spiritual and unfathomable. When it is active, it is simultaneously still. Therefore [Chou] says "no activity." When it is still, it is simultaneously active. Therefore [Chou] says "no stillness." Within stillness there is activity, and within activity there is stillness. When still it is capable of activity, and when active it is capable of stillness. Within yang there is yin, and within yin there is yang. The permutations are inexhaustible.

[e] Then he says, "The yin of water is based in yang; the yang of fire is based in yin." The yin of water and the yang of fire are things; they are physical. That by which they are based in yin and based in yang is the Order; it is metaphysical. Huang Kan⁽⁶³⁾ says, "When we combine these two ideas they are complete. In terms of Order, activity and stillness are as follows: In stillness there is activity and in activity there is stillness; this is their substance. Being still yet capable of activity, and being active yet capable of stillness, is their function. In terms of things, activity and stillness are as follows: That which is active has no stillness, and that which is still has no activity; this is their substance. That which is active is incapable of being still, and that which is still is incapable of activity; this is their function."

[2] [b-e] Question regarding "That which has no activity in activity, and no stillness in stillness, is spirit." What is this Order? Reply: This explains [the passage in the Explanation of the Diagram] "Being active, it generates yang, and at the peak of activity, stillness. Stillness generates yin, and at the peak of stillness it returns to activity." This [Order] itself contains spirit within it. It is not categorized as yin, and is not categorized as yang. Therefore [Chou] says, "When yin and yang are unfathomable it is called spirit." It is also like daytime activity and nighttime stillness. Daytime is certainly categorized as yang. But during the day, spirit does not allow for complete activity. [Likewise,] nighttime is certainly categorized as yin. But during the night, spirit does not allow for complete stillness. Spirit from this is spirit. But while spirit can control [?] day and night, day and night cannot control spirit. It is probably in this way that the "spirit which renders the myriad things subtle" displays its transcendental form. In terms of the connection between activity and stillness, its substance is always just like this. A discussion such as "The yin of water is based in yang; the yang of fire is based in yin" concerns what already has form and appearance. This is a rough discussion.

[3] [b-d] What is called spirit is from the beginning not separate from things. For example, Heaven and earth are things. How can Heaven's [function of] gathering together be only activity? How can Earth's [function of] bringing to life be only stillness?⁽⁶⁴⁾ These are spirit.⁽⁶⁵⁾

[4] [g] "The four seasons revolve, and the myriad things end and begin [again]." While the Way has things and seasons, it lacks form and body. If the Way lacked things and seasons, how could it generate [produce] as it does?

[5] [h] "Undifferentiated" refers to the Supreme Polarity. "Extensive" refers to what is after yin-yang and the Five Phases. Therefore the last sentence says, "And how inexhaustible!" This refers to what is after the "extensive:" the inexhaustibility of the myriad things that come after yin-yang and the Five Phases.

17. MUSIC (A) 樂上

[Chang's note:] This section discusses the different functions of ancient music and modern music, according to [the distinction between] order and disorder.

[a] The ancient sages and kings systematized the ritual procedures and reformed education. The Three Bonds were corrected, the Nine Divisions were arranged, the hundred surnames [i.e. all people] were in great harmony, and the myriad things were all in accord.

"Bonds" are the main cords in a net. The Three Bonds are: the husband is the wife's bond, the father is the son's bond, and the ruler is the minister's bond. "Division" means category. The Nine Divisions appear in the "Great Plan" [chapter of the Shu-ching].⁽⁶⁶⁾ "Accord" means obey. This is what is meant by "after Order there is harmony."

[b] They created music to give expression to the airs of the eight [directional] winds and to pacify the dispositions of all under Heaven.

"The eight [kinds of musical] sounds that give expression to the winds of the eight directions" is found in the Kuo-yü (Conversations of the States). They "gave expression" and thereby made known the manifestations of the Order. They "pacified" and thereby regulated the harmonious flow.

[c] Therefore the sounds of music are placid and not distressing, harmonious and not licentious. When they enter the ear they move the heart/mind; [yet] they are entirely placid and harmonious. Being placid, they calm the desirous heart/mind. Being harmonious, they ease the fierce heart/mind.

"Placid" is an expression of Order. "Harmony" is a character of the placid. First placid, then harmonious is also [Chou's] idea of "emphasizing stillness." However, the discussion of music by the ancient Sages and worthies says "simply harmony." So what is here called "placid" is probably patterned after modern music; only later was its origin seen in the idea of "sedate and correct, respectful and grave."⁽⁶⁷⁾

[Added by Chang Po-hsing:] Master Chu said: Following "the idea of 'sedate and correct, respectful and grave,'" I wish I had added the six words, "therefore extremely simple and vacant."

[d] To be easy-going and evenly-balanced is the height of virtue. In the transformation of all under Heaven, government is perfected. This is what is meant by the Way that matches Heaven-and-Earth, the Ultimate of antiquity.⁽⁶⁸⁾

The desirous heart/mind is calmed and therefore evenly-balanced. The fierce heart/mind is eased and therefore easy-going. This refers to the greatness of the Sages' transformative achievement in creating music. (Some say that "in the transformation" [hua chung] should read "the transformation and fulfillment" [hua ch'eng]).

[e]⁽⁶⁹⁾ Later generations have neglected ritual. Their governmental measures and laws have been in disorder. Rulers have indulged their material desires without restraint, and consequently the people below them have suffered bitterly. Rulers have claimed that ancient music is not worth listening to and replaced it by or changed it into modern music, which is seductive, licentious, depressive, and complaining. It arouses desires and increases bitterness without end. Therefore there have been cases of people destroying their rulers, casting away their fathers, taking life lightly, and ruining human relations, and it has been impossible to put an end to such atrocities.

They have done away with ritual and lacked restraint; therefore their music has been agitated, seductive and licentious. Government has been disordered and the people have suffered; therefore their music has been unharmonious, depressive and complaining. Being seductive and licentious, it therefore arouses desires and leads to taking life lightly and ruining human relations. Being depressive and complaining, it therefore increases bitterness and leads to destroying rulers and casting away fathers.

[f] Alas! Ancient music appeased the heart but modern music enhances desires. Ancient music spread a civilizing influence, but modern music increases discontent.

The difference between the ancient and the modern is simply that between the placid and the agitated, the harmonious and the unharmonious.

[g] To hope for perfect government without restoring ancient ritual and changing modern music is to be far off the mark.⁽⁷⁰⁾

Only after restoring ancient ritual can one change modern music.

18. MUSIC (B) 樂中

[Chang's note:] This section discusses how the Way of music is connected with government. This is what is meant by "hearing its music, one knows its virtue."

[a] Music is based in government. When government is good and the people are at peace, then the minds/hearts of all under Heaven are harmonious. Therefore the Sages created music to give expression to these harmonious hearts/minds. When it spreads throughout heaven-and-earth, the ch'i of heaven-and-earth is stimulated and there is great harmony throughout. When heaven-and-earth are harmonious, then the myriad things are compliant. Therefore the ancestral and natural spirits (shen ch'i) will approach [when sacrifices are offered], and birds and beasts will be tame.

Since the music of the Sages was not created by unreasonable force, the mystery of its creation enables it really to apprehend the primal origin of sound (-ch'i). Therefore the wills of (?) Heaven and human beings mutually stimulate each other to activity, and the result is this.

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] Question: The Commentary on the T'ung-shu says, "the mystery of its creation really enables it to apprehend the primal origin of sound."⁽⁷¹⁾ I do not understand how we can still determine this. Reply: Today the only dispute is with the first note of the yellow bell. When this is high, the rest are all high. When this is low, the rest are all low. Thus it is difficult to attain the middle.⁽⁷²⁾ Question: What was Hu An-ting's⁽⁷³⁾ [theory of] music like? Reply: It was in the same category.

[2] Question on "the primal origin of sound." Master Chu replied: The calendar experts greatly emphasize this original sound. When this is one is defined then what follows is defined; when the original sound is off then what follows is off. Only the system of the ancients, which today no longer exists, followed these principles [precisely]. [Such imprecision] will do for people, but laws cannot be imprecise. And in the case of music, today we can no longer verify them; today people can only discuss them. The production of all sounds comes from the human mind. When the human mind is active, things are caused to be so. When it comes to attaining the [ancient] system, this will not do.

19. MUSIC (C) 樂下

[Chang's note:] This section says that when the sound of music is quiet and the lyrics are good then there will be a corresponding effect on customs.

When the sound of music is quiet then the listener's mind is pacified. When the music's lyrics are good then the singer is respectful. Thus styles shift and customs change. The influence of weird sound and passionate lyrics is also like this.

20. LEARNING TO BE A SAGE 聖學

[Chang's note:] This section says that what is essential in learning to be a Sage lies in the unity of this mind.

[Someone asked:] "Can Sagehood be learned?"

Reply: It can.

"Are there essentials?"

Reply: There are.

"I beg to hear them."

Reply: Unity (i)⁽⁷⁴⁾ is essential. To be unified is to have no desire. Without desire one is open-minded (hsü) when still and direct when active.⁽⁷⁵⁾ Being open-minded when still, one will be clear (ming); being clear one will be penetrating (t'ung). Being direct in activity one will be impartial (kung); being impartial one will be all-embracing (p'u). Being clear and penetrating, impartial and all-embracing, one is almost [a Sage].

The point of this chapter is the most important. Although the meaning of the text is clear, it does no harm to explain it. If students are able to thoroughly contemplate it and energetically practice it, they will have the means to understand the truth of the Non-Polar (wu-chi) and the origin of the Two Modes and the Four Images. These are not external to this mind, and in the realm of daily functioning itself there is no separation from the power to use them.⁽⁷⁶⁾

From the Classified Conversations:

[1] "Unity" is the Supreme Polarity. "Open-minded when still" is the stillness of yin. "Direct in activity" is the activity of yang. "Clear and penetrating, impartial and all-embracing" is the Five Phases. Basically what Master Chou discusses is all related to the Supreme Polarity and the various moral principles.

[2] Master Chou only says "Unity is having no desire." This expression (hua-t'ou) is eloquent, but unexpectedly difficult to pin down. How can ordinary people be without desire? Therefore [Ch'eng] I-ch'uan only discussed the word "reverence/composure" (ching). ...

[3] Question: Master Chou said, "Unity is essential. Unity is having no desire." What does this mean? Reply: Concerning "unity is having no desire," of course unity is having no desire. When a person tries to have no desire, how can the mind not be unified? Further question: How does this compare with Master Ch'eng's statement, "Focusing on unity (chu i) means reverence/composure"? Reply: "Having no desire" and "reverence/composure" are the same. This word "reverence/composure" is extraordinarily clear. To seek to hold to reverence/composure is somewhat like expending energy, which is not as good as being without desire altogether. People simply have desires, so this mind has a thousand starts and ten-thousand connections. The words of this chapter are extremely important.⁽⁷⁷⁾

[4] Question on "Can Sagehood be learned?... Unity is essential." Reply: This is a clear-sighted unity, not a muddled unity. Question: What is a muddled unity? Reply: There must be a critical point where reverence/composure is understandable. If it is a reverence/composure resulting from lumping everything into one, then it is not reverence/composure. This is only speaking in general terms. "Clear and penetrating" refers to the self; "impartial and all-embracing" means being receptive to external things. In being open-minded when still is the first attainment of caring and nourishing [for one's moral nature]. Only when there is clarity and penetration can one be impartial and all-embracing; if one strives to be impartial and all-embracing one definitely cannot do(?) it. "Open-minded when still; clear and penetrating" means "to purify one's thoughts and approach the spiritual."⁽⁷⁸⁾ "Direct in activity; impartial and all-embracing" means "to benefit one's functioning and ease the body."⁽⁷⁹⁾

[5] Question: "Unity" is pure oneness [homogeneity]. "Open-minded when still" is when this mind is like clear, still water, without the slightest selfish desire filling it. Thus its activity completely accords with the flowing out of the Order of Heaven, without the slightest selfish desire disturbing it. "Open-minded when still" is substance; "direct in activity" is function. Reply: That's just how it is. "Open-minded when still" is easy to see; "direct in activity" is difficult to see. "Open-minded when still" is just as I-ch'uan put it, "When there is mastery in [the mind's] equilibrium (chung), then it is open-minded. When it is open-minded, then depravity cannot enter."⁽⁸⁰⁾ When things come and disturb it, then it becomes full [of non-essential considerations]. Being full, it is cloudy; being cloudy it is blocked. Being direct in activity is simply when the activity [of the mind] has not the slightest obstruction. If occasionally there is a selfish desire, then it will be obstructed and deflected. Whether or not you want it to happen like this, when there is a blockage [the mind's activity] will not be direct. Deflection leads to selfishness, and selfishness leads to narrowness.

[6] Question: How does "clear and penetrating, impartial and all-embracing" correspond with the Four Images? Reply: Simply in the manner of spring, summer, fall, and winter. Question: Does clarity correspond with winter? Reply: It is said to be like the point of activity. Question: Is it like the origin [of activity]? Reply: Yes. But this is metaphorical relationship; it is not really explained like this.

2. (deleted)

3. Cf. Chou Lien-hsi chi, p.129.

4. Chou-I, T'uan commentary on hexagram 1. See Chu Hsi, Chou-I pen-i (The Original Meaning of the Book of Change) (1177; rpt. Taipei: Hua-lien, 1978), 1:3a.

5. In most cases the term "virtue" will be used to translate te. However, it should be borne in mind that the connotation is not strictly moral, but also includes the specific power that characterizes a thing (similar to the Latin virtus). Thus the "Four Virtues" of the hexagram Ch'ien (see below) are the four essential characteristics of Ch'ien.

6. Chou-i, T'uan commentary on hexagram 1 (Chou-I pen-i 1:3a).

7. Cf. Chou I, Wen-yen 1 (Chou-I pen-i, 1:7b).

8. Chou-i, Hsi-tz'u A.5.1 (Chou-I pen-i, 3:5a). Disregarding Chu Hsi's interpretation, a better translation of this passage might be, "The alternation of yin and yang is called the Way. To carry it out is goodness. To actualize it is human nature."

9. For this and the next sentence, cf. the previous passage.

10. Chu's point here is that the fundamental nature of things is inherent in their transformative processes; ontology is inherent in cosmology.

11. Almost all the selections are from Chu Hsi's Classified Conversations (Chu-tzu yü-lei). Chang Po-hsing identifies the student who recorded each set of remarks, but these will be omitted here. Selections taken from Chu Hsi's Collected Papers (Hui-an hsien-sheng Chu wen-kung wen-chi) will be identified here. The bracketed selection numbers are added by the translator, as are the bracketed lower-case letters, which correspond to the sections of the text to which the comments refer. Selections lacking bracketed letters refer to the whole chapter.

12. Wu, lit. "nonexistent."

13. Yu, lit. "existent."

14. Chung-yung 25. See Chu Hsi, Chung-yung chang-chü, in Ssu-shu chi-chu (Ssu-pu pei-yao ed.), 17b.

15. Paraphrasing Chung-yung 20: "He who is authentic hits the Mean without effort, apprehends without thinking, and easily complies with the Way of the Mean. This is a Sage." Chung-yung chang-chü, 15a.

16. Analects 12:1.

17. This chapter title, ch'eng chi te, is usually parsed as a sentence, e.g. by Wing-tsit Chan: "Sincerity is the subtle, incipient, activating force of virtue" (A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, p.466). However, in Chu Hsi's comments on this chapter in the Chu-tzu yü-lei (see below), he consistently treats chi "incipience" as a distinct phase of mind, never subordinating it grammatically to te "virtue" or to ch'eng "authenticity/sincerity." I have therefore translated the title in accordance with Chu Hsi's treatment, parsing it as three distinct terms -- the topics of the first three lines of the chapter -- with no closer grammatical connection.

18. An alternative translation would be "[In authenticity there is] incipient good and evil." Again, I am following Chu Hsi's interpretation. In his comments (below), he consistently treats chi (incipience) as an independent subject, never an adjective, and never connecting it grammatically with the ch'eng (authenticity) of the previous clause.

19. Hsi-tz'u A.10.4. This is discussed further in chapter 4 below.

20. In other words, the distinction between good and evil depends on the intentionality of an action. But there is a more general sense in which one can say that spontaneous, authentic activity is by nature (or by definition) good.

21. Chung-yung 1. What Chu means here is that authenticity is simply the effortless expression of one's inborn nature, in harmony with the still center of one's being.

22. Mencius 4A.2.

23. Referring to a general of the state of Ch'i during the Warring States period. In 285-285 BCE he saved the royal house of Ch'i by driving back an invasion by the state of Yen. See Ssu-ma Ch'ien, Shih-chi (Historical Records), ch. 82.

24. Yang Tao-fu studied with Chu Hsi beginning around 1189. See Chan Wing-tsit, Chu-tzu men-jen (Chu Hsi's Disciples) (Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng, 1982), pp. 272-273.

25. Chung-yung 1 (trans. Chan, Source Book, p. 98, slightly modified). The Worthy is Tzu-ssu, Confucius' grandson, the reputed author of the text. The Sage is presumably Confucius, since Chu Hsi believed that the text contained Confucius' ideas and sayings as transmitted by Tzu-ssu.

26. The first line is from Chung-yung 1. The second is ?

27. Ts'ai Yüan-ting (1135-1198), Chu's disciple and occasional collaborator (e.g. on the I-hsüeh ch'i-meng [Introduction to the Study of the I Ching]). This statement has not yet been traced.

28. The statement that "human nature cannot be inactive" seems at first to contradict the Ch'eng/Chu claim that human nature (hsing) is identical with the metaphysical Order (li), which does not act. But it alludes to a complex discussion of good and evil in Chu's "Treatise on Ch'eng Hao's Discourse on the Nature" (Ming-tao lun hsing shuo, in Chu Wen-kung wen-chi [SPPY ed.] 67:16b-18a; cf. Chan, Source Book, pp. 597-600). Chu agrees with Ch'eng Hao's claim that "Good and evil in the world are both the Principle of Nature. What is called evil is not original evil. It becomes evil only because of deviation from the mean" (Chan, p.598). This is what Chu means by action being "appropriate" to its circumstances. When action is appropriate, or accords with the Mean, it is ordered, or consonant with the Order of Heaven.

29. This rather lengthy "question," including the diagrams, is taken from a letter of Chao Chih-tao to Chu Hsi. The letter and Chu's annotations on it are found in Chu Tzu wen-chi (SPPY ed.) 59:42a-44a. For Chao Chih-tao see Chan Wing-tsit, Chu Tzu men-jen (Chu Hsi's Disciples) (Taipei: Hsüeh-sheng shu-chü, 1982), p. 293.

30. Hu Hung (1100-1155), Chih-yen (On Understanding Words) (SPPY ed.), 1:5b.

31. "Branches" (fen-p'ai), "legitimate" (tsung) and "illegitimate" (nieh) are desce